Chapter - 5 Pastoralists in the Modern World

Introduction

We will read about nomadic pastoralists in this chapter. Nomads are the people who do not live in one place but move from one area to another to earn their living. In many parts of India, we can see nomadic pastoralists on the move with their herds of goats and sheep, or camel and cattle. (Now the question is why they move here and there or who are they?)

Pastoralists are unable to be remembered in our history. All the focus runs parallel to agriculture and industry. Sometimes you read about artisans, but rarely about pastoralists.

Now we will read why pastoralists were important part for societies like India and Africa? How Colonialism did impacted their lives and how they have coped with the pressures of modern society?

Pastoral Nomads and their Movements in the Mountains

• Gujjar Bakarwals of Jammu and Kashmir are herders of goat and sheep. They are pastoral nomads called as “kafila” because the movement from one place to another is maintained by cold and snow.
• With the onset of 3 summers, the snow melts and mountain sides get a variety of grasses that sprouted provided rich nutritious forage for the animal herds. When the high mountains covered up with snow in September, the herds were grazed in the low hills.
• In a different area, the Gaddi shepherds of Himachal Pradesh had a similar cycle of seasonal movement. They spent winters in shiwalik range and by April they move towards north.
• The Gujjar cattle herders of kumaon and Garhwal spent their winters in dry forests of bhabar and summers in high meadows of bugyals.
• Bhotiyas, Sherpas and kinnaw’s were all among them who had to adjust to seasonal changes and make effective use of available pastures in different places.

On the plateaus, plains and deserts  

Some pastoralists lived in plateau, plains and deserts of India:

• DHANGARS: Dhangars were important pastoral community who stayed in central plateau of Maharashtra during monsoon. This is a semi arid region with low rainfall and poor soil. By October, Dhangars started their move to west and reach konkan.
• In Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh, the dry central plateau covered with grass was inhabited by cattle, goat and sheep herders. The Gollas herd cattle and the kurmas and the kurubas reared cattle and goat. They lived near the woods and in dry season, they moved to coastal tracks.
• Unlike mountain pastoralists, it was not cold and snow that governs the seasonal movement; rather it was the alteration of monsoon and dry season.
• Banajaras were another group of graziers found in Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra in search of good posture land. The Raikas lived in deserts of Rajasthan. They combined cultivation with pastoralist because of meager rainfall in this region. When the grazing grounds were dry, they move to other pasture and water.
• Life of these pastoral groups was sustained by different factors. They need to judge how long the herds could stay in an area, when they could find water and pasture. They also need to calculate the timing of their movements and ensure to move through different territories. They had to set up relationship with farmers so that herds could grace in fields in their way.

How did the life of pastoralists changed under colonial rule

Colonial rule and pastoral life

Under colonial rule, life of pastoralists changed dramatically their grazing grounds decreased, movements were regulated, revenue to be paid was increased, their agriculture livestock declined and their trades and crafts were affected.

HOW?

• The colonial state wanted to convert grazing lands into cultivated farms and wanted to increase land revenue in the form of taxes. To colonial officials, all uncultivated land appeared to be unproductive and considered as waste land.
• From mid 19^th century, waste land riles were enacted. Under these rules, uncultivated land was brought under cultivated for the aim to increase land revenue. Common grazing facts used by pastoralists were taken to cultivate and hence there was a shortage of pasture for them.
• Various forest acts were implemented during 19^th Under this, some forests were declared “reserved “which produced valuable timber like deodar and Sal. Even in the area they were allowed, their movement were regulated.
• The timing of their entry, departure and number of days they could spend in forest was limited. They had to move even if the forage is available because the forest department permits that had been issued to them now ruled them. If they overstayed, they were liable to fines.
• British officials were suspicious of nomadic people. They wanted the rural people to live in village in fixed places with fixed rights on particular fields. Those who were settled were peaceable and law abiding for them and those who were nomadic were considered to be criminal.
• In 1871, colonial government passed criminal tribes act in which many communities of craftsmen, traders, pastoralists were classified as criminal tribes. Once this act came into force, these communities have to live in notified village settlements. They were not allowed to move out without a permit and ultimately, this lead to restriction in their grazing grounds.
• The colonial government imposed tax on land, canal water, salt, trade goods, animals etc to expand its revenue income. Pastoralists had to pay tax on every animal they grazed on pastures. The tax per head of cattle went up rapidly and system of collection was made efficient.
• By 1880s, the government began collecting taxes directly from the pastoralists. Each of them was given a pass and while entering a grazing trade, they had to pay tax. The number of cattle heads and the amount of tax to be paid was entered on the pass.

How did these changes affect the lives of pastoralists?

• All these measures (mentioned above) led to shortage of pastures. Area of pastureland declined and shepherd and cattle herders could no longer freely pasture their cattle in forest.
• As pasturelands disappeared, the exiting animals stock had to feed on remaining land which led to continuous intensive grazing of these pastures. Due to this, the quality of pastures declined.
• This created a further shortage of forage for animals and deterioration of animals stock. Underfed cattle died in large number. During scarcities and famines

How did pastoralists cope up with these changes:-

• Pastoralists reacted to these restrictions in different way. Some of them reduced the number of cattle in their herds due to shortage of pasture, while others tried to discover new pastures when movement to old grazing ground became difficult.
• Some richer pastoralists bought land and settled down, giving up their nomadic life. Some settled as peasants cultivating land, others took to more extensive trading. Many poor pastoralists borrowed money from money lenders to survive. They lost their cattle and sheep and became laborers working on fields or in small towns.
• Yet, pastoralists not only continue to survive, their numbers expanded over the decades in many regions. When pastureland in one place is close to them, they changed their directions, reduced the size of herd, combined pastoral activity with other forms of income and adapted to the changes in modern world.

Pastoralism in Africa

• Half of the world’s pastoral population lives in Africa. They include communities like Bedouins, Berbers, Maasai, Somali, Burkan and Turkana. They live in semi-arid grasslands or arid deserts where rain fed agriculture is difficult.
• They raise cattle, camel, goat, sheep, donkeys, and they sell milk, meat, animal skin and wool. Some also earn through trade and transport, pastoral activity with agriculture, others do variety of odd jobs to manage their livelihood.

Where have the grazing lands gone? 

• Before colonial times, Maasai land stretched over a vast area from north Kenya to steppes of northern Tanzania. European emperial powers scrambled for colonial possession in Africa, they began dividing it into different colonies.
• The best grazing land were taken over for white settlement and Maasai were pushed into a small area in south Kenya and north Tanzania. They lost 60% of pre-colonial lands and were confined to arid zone with low rainfall and poor pastures.
• The colonial government encouraged local peasant communities to expand cultivation. Due to this, pasturelands turned into cultivated fields. Large areas of grazing lands were reserved. Pastoralists were not allowed to enter; they could neither hunt nor graze their herds in these areas.
• The loss of finest grazing lands and water resources created pressure on the small area of land within which Maasai were confined. Continuous grazing in a small area deteriorated the quality of pastures. There is shortage in fodder supply and feeding the cattle become a persistent problem.

The Borders are Closed

• In late 19^th century, colonial government began imposing various restrictions on their mobility. They were to live within special reserves and cannot move out with their stock without special permits. It was difficult to get permits without trouble and harassment.
• Pastoralists were not allowed to enter the market in white areas. In many regions, they were prohibited from participating in any trade due to which they are fully dependant on their stock.
• The new territorial boundaries and restriction imposed on them suddenly changed the lives of pastoralists which adversely affected their pastoral and trading activities.

When pastures dry

• Pastoralists are nomadic, they move from place to place. This nomadic allows them to survive in bad times and avoid crises due to uncertain rain and restriction on their movement.
• From the colonial period, Maasai were bound to fixed area, confined within a reserve and prohibited from moving in search of pastures. They were cut off from best grazing lands and forced to live within a semi arid tract prove to frequent droughts.
• Since they could not shift their cattle to places where fodders available, large number of Maasai cattle died of starvation and diseases. As the grazing land shrank, the adverse effect of the droughts increased in intensity. The frequent bad years led to decline in animal stock of pastoralists.

Not All Were Equally Affected    

• Maasai society was divided into 2 social categories- elders and warriors in pre colonial times. The elders formed the ruling group and met in periodic councils to decide affairs of community and settle disputes. Warriors consisted of younger people, mainly responsible for protection of the tribes. They defended the community and organized cattle raids.                                                                                     
• To administer the affairs of Maasai, the British introduced a series of measures that had important implication. They appointed chiefs to manage affairs of the tribes. They also imposed restrictions on raiding and warfare.
• The chiefs appointed by colonial government accumulated wealth over times. They started living in towns and got involved in trade. They managed to survive the devastations of war and drought.
• The life of poor pastoralists was miserable. They did not have resources to tide over bad times. They lost everything at the time of war and famine. Most of them started to work as labourers and others did odd jobs.
• The social changes in Maasai occurred at 2 levels. First, the traditional difference based on age, between the elders and warriors was disturbed and second, a new distinction between the wealthy and poor pastoralists developed.

Conclusion

• Pastoral community in different parts of the world was affected in a variety of different ways by changes in the modern world. New laws and new borders affect the patterns of their movements. With increasing restrictions on their mobility, pastoralists find it difficult to move in search of pastures. Grazing land was disappearing which became a severe problem for them. Pastures that remain deteriorate through continuous over grazing.
• Pastoralists adapted to new times. They change the paths of their annual movement, reduce their numbers of cattle, exert political pressure on government for relief, subsidy and other forms of support and demand a right in management of forest and water resources. Pastoralists were not the people who could not indulge in the modern world.
• Environmentalists and economists have increasingly come to recognize that pastoral nomadism is a form of life that is perfectly suited to many hilly and dry regions of the world.