Chapter - 4 Forest Society and Colonialism

Introduction

A lot of diversity from forests is rapidly disappearing between 1700 & 1995.  A vast area has been cleared for industrial uses, cultivation, postures and fuel wood.

Why Deforestation?

Disappearance of forest is referred to as deforestation under colonial rule. It became more systematic &extensive.

1. Land to be improved:
   1. As population increased and the demand for food went up, peasants extended the boundaries, clearing forests and breaking new land.
   2. In colonial period, cultivation expanded rapidly as British encouraged production of commercial crops like sugar, wheat, jute & cotton. Demand for these crops increased in 19^th century to feed urban population and raw material were required for industrial production.
   3. In 19^th century, the colonial state thought that forests were unproductive and wilderness, so they had brought to be under cultivation, so that land could yield agricultural products and revenue and enhance the income of state.

1. Sleepers on the tracks:
   1. By early 19^th century, oak forests were disappeared creating problem of timber supply for Royal Navy. Search parties were sent to explore the forest resources by 1820s on a massive scale.
   2. The spread of railways in 1850s created new demand for colonial trade and imperial troops. To run locomotives, wood was needed as fuel and to lay railway lines sleepers were essential to hold the tracks together.
   3. From 1860s, railway network expanded rapidly due to which larger number trees were felled for sleepers and the forest around railway tacks started disappearing.

1. Plantations:
2. Large area of natural forests was cleared to make way for plantation of tea, coffee and rubber to meet Europe’s growing need for these commodities.
3. The colonial government took over the forests and gave areas to European planters at cheap rates which were then enclosed and cleared of forests to plant tea or coffee.

Rise of Commercial Forestry

1. British needed forests to build ships and railways. They were worried that the use of forests by local people and reckless felling of trees would destroy forest, so they invited a German expert, Dietrich Brandis.
2. Brandis realized that a proper system had to be introduced for management of forests and training of people. It requires a legal sanction. Restrictions had to be put up on falling of trees and grazing for timber production.

                     He set up initiatives:

• Indian forest science was set up in 1864.
• Indian forest act was enacted in 1865.
• Imperial forest research institute in Dehradun in 1906. (Scientific forestry was taught here.)
  • Scientific Forestry: A system of cutting trees controlled but the forest department, in which old trees are cut and new ones are planted.

3. Forest act was enacted twice in 1865 and 1927. It divided forests into 3 categories: reserved, protected and village forests. Villages are not allowed to take anything from reserved forests, however for house building and fuel, they could take wood from protected or village forests.

How were the lives of people affected? 

• According to the Forest act, all everyday practices of villages like cutting wood for their houses, grazing their cattle, collecting fruits and hunting and fishing became illegal.
• People were forced to steel wood from the forests and if caught, they were at the mercy of the forest guards who would take bribes from them.

How did forest rules affect cultivation?

• Major impact of European colonialism was on the practice of shifting cultivation or Swidden agriculture practice in parts of Asia, Africa and South America.
• In shifting cultivation, parts of the forest and burnt in rotation. Seeds are sown in the ashes after first monsoon rains, and crop is harvested by October-November. These plots are cultivated for couple of years and left fallow for 12-18 years for the forest to grow back.

Why banned?

• European foresters regarded this practice as harmful for the forest. They felt that land which was used for cultivation every few years could not grow trees for railway timber. When a forest was burnt, it added danger of flames spreading and burning valuable timber.
• This cultivation also made harder for government to calculate taxes. As a result, shifting cultivation was banned. Many communities were displaced from their homes in the forests.

Who could hunt?

• Lives of forest dwellers changed in other way. Their customary practice of hunting deer, partridges and other small animals was prohibited by the forest laws. Under colonial rule, the scale of hunting increased to such an extent that some species got extinct.
• The British saw large animals as signs of wild, primitive and savage society. They believe that by killing dangerous animals India would be civilized. They gave rewards for killing of tigers, wolves and other large animals on grounds that they posed a threat to cultivators.

New traders, New Employments and New Services 

• Forest department took control over the forests by which some people were benefited from the new opportunities that had opened up in trade. Many communities left their traditional occupation and started trading in forest products.
• In India, with coming of British, trade was completely regulated by government. British government gave large European trading firms the sole right to trade in forest products. Grazing and hunting by local people was restricted.
• Due to this, many pastoralist and nomadic communities of Madras presidency lost their livelihoods. Some of them were called “criminal tribes” and were forced to work in factories, mines and plantations.
• However, the new opportunities of work did not mean improved well being for people. Their wages were low and conditions of work were bad. They could not return home easily from where they had been recruited.

Rebellion in the forest  

In many parts of India and across the world, forest communities rebelled against the changes that were being imposed on them.

Bastar rebellion in 1910

• People of bastar become worried when the colonial government proposed to reserve 2/3 of forest in 1905 and stopped shifting cultivation, hunting and collection of forest produce. Some villages were allowed to live in reserved forest on the condition if they work free for the forest department in cutting and transporting trees and protecting forest from fires..
• Villages had suffered from increased land rents and frequent demand for free labour and goods by colonial officials. Reservations were imposed after terrible famines in 1899-1900 and 1907-1908.
• In 1910, Mango boughs, a lump of earth, chilies and arrows were circulated inviting villagers to rebel against British. Bazaars were looted, the house of officials, traders, schools and police station were burnt and robbed. People who were attacked were associated with colonial state and its oppressive laws.
• British sent troops to suppress the rebellion. People who take part in rebellion were punished. It took 3 months {February-may} to regain control. Even after independence, the same practice of keeping people out of the forests and reserving them for industrial use continued.

Forest Transformation in Java 

Java is a famous rice producing island in Indonesia. It was a Dutch colony and has similarities in laws forest control with India. It was a place where the Dutch started new forest management policy.

The Woodcutter of java

The kalangs of java were community skilled forest cutters of shifting cultivators. Without expertise, it was difficult to harvest teaks and for kings to build their places. When Dutch began to gain control over them in 18^th century, kalangs resisted by attacking a Dutch fort in 1770 but their rebellion was suppressed.

Dutch scientific forestry  

• In 19^th century, Dutch introduced new forest laws and restricted villagers’ access to forests. Wood could only be used for specific purpose like making river boats or constructing houses, only from specific forests under close supervision.
• Villagers were punished for grazing their cattle in young stands, transporting wood without permission or travelling on forest roads with horse carts or cattle. The need to manage shipbuilding and railways led to the introduction of forest services.
• In 1882, 280,000 sleepers were to be exported to java which requires labour to cut the trees, transport logs and prepare sleepers. The Dutch imposed rents on land being cultivated and then exempted some villages on condition to provide free labour and buffaloes. This was known as Blandongdiensten system.

Samin’s challenge 

• In 1990, Surontiko Samin Randublatung village questioned on state ownership of forest. He argued that state had not created wind, water, earth and wood so it could not own it.
• In 1907, around 3000 families followed his ideas. A widespread movement was developed. Some of the Saminists protested by laying down on their land in front of Dutch while others refused to pay taxes or fines or perform labour.

War and Deforestation 

• The first and second world war had a major impact on forests. In India, working plans were abandoned and forest department cut trees freely to meet British war needs.
• Dutch followed a scorched earth’ policy in Java and destroyed sawmills and burnt huge piles of giant teak logs so that would not fall into Japanese hands.
• The Japanese exploited the forests recklessly for their own war industries, forcing forest villagers to cut down trees. Many villagers used this opportunity to expand cultivation in the forest.
• As in India, people’s need for agricultural land has brought then into conflict with forest department’s desire to control the land and exclude people from it.

New developments in forestry

• Since 1980’s government across Asia and Africa have begun to see that scientific forestry and policy of keeping forest communities away from forests has resulted in many conflicts.
• Conservation of forest has become important than to collect timber. For this, people living near the forest are involved. Villages have helped forest to survive as they protected them in sacred groves.